Yakın tarihimiz savaşlar, düşük yoğunluklu çatışmalar ve çeşitli rekabet alanları-dönemlerine şahitlik ediyor. Dünya bu tür alanlar ve dönemlerde devletler ile devlet dışı aktörlerin karşılıklı çıkarlar veya geçici ‘ortak düşman’ algıları üzerinden şekillenen iş birliklerine de sahne oluyor. Çeşitli sınıflandırmalarda yeni dönemin özellikle Ortadoğu ölçeğindeki yükselen devlet dışı aktörleri[af] Burada devlet dışı aktörler ile hükümet dışı aktörler arasındaki fark gözetilerek özellikle devlet dışı aktör ifadesi seçilmiştir. Hükümet dışı aktörler yani yasal zemindeki sivil organizasyonlar kastedilmemektedir. STK’lar, çok uluslu şirketler, çevre-sağlık-ekonomik konulardaki ulusal ya da uluslararası girişimler yasal zeminler veya en azından meşru alanlarda kendilerini ifade ederken, tanımlandıkları doğa itibari ile devletin çözüm üretemediği alanlarda ‘sivil’ bir fonksiyonu yerine getirmektedirler [/af] genel olarak silahlı örgüt/gruplar üzerinden şekillenirken çoğu zaman göz ardı edilen ve genel olarak sınır ötesi kabiliyetleri küreselleşme çağından önce gelişmiş olan mafya, eylemleri ve amaçları bakımından doğal bir şekilde, suç örgütü olarak sınıflandırılıyor.[af] Organised Crime around the World, Sabrina Adamoli Andrea Di Nicola Ernesto U. Savona and Paola Zoffi, European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control, United Nations, Helsinki, 1998, s.4-91 [/af]
Yolsuzluk, sahtekarlık, karaborsacılık, kara para aklama, kaçakçılık, yasa dışı göçmenlik, uyuşturucu, insan ve organ ticareti[af] Digest of organized crime cases, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, New York, 2012, s.122 – 126 [/af] gibi yasadışı alanlarda şiddet ve cebr ile faaliyet gösteren mafya tipi organizasyonların sıralanan suçlarının çoğu sınır ötesi gerçeklik taşımaktadır.[af] The Practice of Transnational Organized Crime, Klaus von Lampe, Department of Police and Security Management, In The Routledge Handbook of Transnational Organized Crime Publisher: Routledge, Editors: Felia Allum, Stan Gilmour [/af] Yayılımları ve organizasyon şekilleri itibari ile en etkili emsalleri bakımından pek çok terör örgütü ve devlet dışı aktörden daha kapalı bir yapıya sahip olan mafya, son dönemlerde karşımıza çıkan devlet dışı aktörler ve devletlerin istihbarat alanındaki iş birliğinin[af] Devlet Dışı Silahlı Aktörler ve İstihbarat, Merve Seren – Murat Aslan, s.31 – 72, Ortadoğu’da Devlet Dışı Silahlı Aktröler, Terör Örgütleri – Milisler – Vekil Güçler, Murat Yeşiltaş – Burhanettin Duran, SETA Yayınları, 2018 [/af] tipik bir örneğinde rol almıştır.
İkinci Dünya Savaşı sırasında ABD’nin Atlantik sahilleri ve sahil bölgesindeki yerleşimlerde Alman ve Japon istihbarat faaliyetlerini durdurma çalışması için bulunan çözüm mafya idi. Bu çözüm daha sonra ABD’nin Husky Operasyonu ile Sicilya’ya yapılan çıkarma öncesinde ve sonrasında müttefiklerin mafyanın sınır aşırı bağlantıları ile yürüttükleri istihbarat ve yeniden inşa faaliyetlerine kadar genişledi. Kuşkusuz bu durumda iki taraf için de karşılıklı bir çıkar söz konusu idi. Çıkar ortaklığının yanı sıra iki taraf için bir de ortak düşman mevcuttu: Mussolini ve faşist rejimi.[af] Aşağıda daha detaylı olarak incelenecek olan Mussolini ve mafya arasındaki mücadele için özet olarak baknız: Mussolini’s War on the Mafia, Kenneth St. John, Kaleidoscope Journal Vol. 5 Issue 2, s.24-29 [/af]
İtalya’da Faşizme doğru
Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın sıcak evresinin sonunda, savaş öncesi yapılan paylaşım planlarına darbe vuran gelişmeler yaşandı. 1860’ta birliğini sağlamış genç İtalya üçlü ittifak ile giriştiği sömürge edinme yarışında ilk adımlarını Afrika’da atmış, burada karşısına çıkan Fransa ve İngiltere gibi güçlü devletler nedeniyle Osmanlı Devleti’nden ele geçirdiği Trablusgarp’ı korumak ve Akdeniz çıkarlarına odaklanmıştır.[af] 20. Yy Siyasi Tarihi, Fahir Armaoğlu, s.252-253, SBF Yayınları, 1973 [/af] Bu amaçla Fransa ile çeşitli anlaşmalar yapan İtalya beri taraftan Almanya ve Avusturya ile girdiği iş birliği üzerinden Sırbistan’ı durdurmak ve Dalmaçya kıyılarını da ele geçirerek Adriyatik’te egemenliğini, mare clausum’u, tesis etmek istiyordu.[af] Armaoğlu, s.322 [/af] Böylece 1880’lerde Almanya ve Avusturya ile başlayan İtalya’nın genişlemeci politikasının eğilimi Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın eşiğinde Üçlü İtilaf devletlerinin yanına geçişle sonuçlandı.[af] Armaoğlu, s.430-431 [/af]
Ne var ki İtalya savaşın sonunda istediklerini elde edemedi. Rusya’da Çarlık rejimi yıkılıp Bolşevikler iktidarı ele geçirmiş ve eski rejimin anlaşmalarını geçersiz saymışlardı. Beri yandan ABD savaşa ilkesel olarak müdahil olmuş ve Wilson ilkeleri nedeniyle İtalya’nın en azından Avrupa kıtasındaki ve Osmanlı topraklarındaki sömürge hayalleri de alt üst olmuştu. Domino etkisi kendisini göstermekte gecikmedi. İtalya içindeki ekonomik sıkıntılar, siyasi güvensizlik, savaştan beklenilenlerin alınamaması iç siyaseti etkiledi ve faşizmin doğuşunda etkili oldu.[af] İtalyan Faşizmi ve Tarihsel Gelişimi, Abdül Samet Çelikçi, Can Kakışım, Muş̧ Alparslan Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt:1 Sayı:2 Aralık: 2013, s.83-99 [/af]
Rusya’da iktidarı ele geçiren sosyalist-komünist Bolşeviklerin etkisi Avrupa genelinde olduğu gibi İtalya’da da kendisini gösteriyordu. İtalya’da, aşağıda mafyanın doğuşunu ele alırken detaylandıracağımız, devletin pervasız liberal politikaları karşısında köylü ve işçilerin sokak hareketleri güçlenmişti. Savaşın son yılında İtalyan askerlerinin Caporetto’daki yenilgisine Torino silah sanayi işçilerinin kitlesel gösterileri eşlik ediyor, İtalya siyasetinde müdahaleciler ve karşıtları şeklinde keskin kutuplaşmalar oluşuyordu.[af] Claudia Baldoli, İtalya Tarihi, s.216 – 231, Feylesof, 2018. [/af] Bu ortamda eski bir sosyalist olan Benito Mussolini’ye eşlik eden müdahaleciler, milliyetçiler ve fütüristler 23 Mart 1919’da, Fasci di Combattimento, Savaş Birlikleri’ni kurdu.[af] Baldoli, s.221; Harun Bodur, Kronolojik 20. Yy. Siyasi Tarihi, s.194, Yeditepe, 2013 [/af] Takip eden iki yıl içinde gösteriler ve çatışmalarla çalkalanan İtalya’da Mussolini’nin birlikleri, daha sonra squadristi[af] Birlik anlamına gelen bu sözcüğün Türkçe karşılığı olarak manga kelimesi kullanılacaktır. [/af] olarak anılacak, silahlanarak köylü protestolarını bastırmak için toprak sahipleri ile işbirliği yaparak sokaklarda hakimiyeti ele geçirmeye başladı.[af] Baldoli, s.222; Bodur, s. 194 [/af] 1921 yılının Kasım ayında Mussolini’nin mangaları ve siyasi takipçileri bir araya gelerek Ulusal Faşist Parti’yi, Partito Nazionale Fascista, kurdular.[af] Çelikçi – Kakışım, s.86 [/af] Yaklaşık bir sene sonra, 1922 Ekim’inde, Mussolini iktidarı ele almak için mangalarının ve gençlik örgütlerinin çalışmasını yaptığı ünlü Roma Yürüyüşü ile hükümeti istifaya ve İtalya kralını da hükümeti kurma görevini kendisine vermeye mecbur bırakarak iktidarı ele geçirdi.[af] Sosyalizm ve Toplumsal Mücadeleler Ansiklopedisi cilt 3, İtalya’da Faşizm ve Sosyalist Hareket, s.761-762, İletişim, 1988 [/af]
Burjuvanın adamları: Mafya
Mussolini iktidara geldikten sonra Sicilya’ya iki ziyaret gerçekleştirdi. Bunlardan birinde, 1937 yılındaki ziyarette Sicilya’yı yeni İtalya imparatorluğunun Akdeniz’deki merkezi yapmayı planladığı ve Sicilya ile Palermo’nun[af] Sicilya adasının kuzeybatı ucundaki liman kenti. Bu kent aynı zamanda adanın da en gelişmiş kentidir. [/af] iliklerine kadar faşist olduğunu iddia etmişti.[af] Mark Smith, History of Sicily after 1713: Modern Sicily, s.520, Ann Arbor, 1959 [/af] Ne var ki Sicilya’da durum oldukça farklıydı.
Mussolini’nin iktidarı ele geçirdiği 1922 yılında Faşist Parti örgütlenmesi henüz Sicilya’yı etkilememişti. 1919 ve 1921’deki seçimlerde[af] 1919 seçimlerine Fasci hareketi olarak giriyor Mussolini cephesi. [/af] Faşist Parti Sicilya’dan sandalye kazanamamış ve 1925 yılına kadar Mussolini’nin partisinin yayın organları adada resmi olarak dağıtıma girmemişti.[af] Jack E. Reece, p.261 in Fascism, the Mafia, and the Emergence of Sicilian Separatism (1919-43), The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 45, No. 2, Jun., 1973, pp. 261-276 [/af] Bu gecikmede Sicilyalıların faşizmi ‘kuzeye özgü’ bir durum olarak görmesi ve mafyanın bölgedeki varlığı oldukça etkili idi.[af] Reece, s.262; Christopher Duggan, Fascism and the Mafia, s.100, Yale, 1989 [/af] Bu dönemde mafya ile faşizmin direk bir çekişme yahut savaşa girmedi çünkü Mussolini ve Faşist Parti için Sicilya’da Soldino Hareketi gibi mafyadan daha acil sorunları vardı.[af] Reece, s.262 [/af]
İktidarının ilk yıllarında Mussolini Faşist Parti eliyle devleti dönüştürememişti, henüz bir polis devleti örgütlenmesine sahip değildi[af] Mussolini bu dönüşümü 1924 seçimlerinden sonra sağlayabildi. 1925 yılının ortalarına kadar süren dönüşüm süreci için bakınız: Claudia Baldoli, İtalya Tarihi, Mussolini İtalyası, s.226-231 [/af] ve bu nedenle mafya ile bir denge gözetti. Mussolini’nin yükselişi döneminde mafya da aynı şekilde davrandı. Mafya işleri veya iş birliği ile zenginleşen orta sınıf bazı Sicilyalılar yeni rejimle uzlaşarak daha saygın statüler ve işlere ulaşmayı planlıyorlardı.[af] Michele Pantaleone, Mafia and Politics, s.51-53, Chatto & Windus, 1966 [/af] Bu burjuvalaşma eğilimi sürecinin altında geçmişten gelen bir etki yatıyordu: Burbon Hanedanlığı dönemi.[af] Kingdom and House of the Two Sicilies, Luigi Mendola, http://www.bestofsicily.com/mag/art425.htm [/af]
Burbon Hanedanlığı 1815’te İtalya’nın Sicilya adası ve Napoli bölgesini idaresini ikinci kez ele geçirmesi ile bölgede köklü bir ekonomik reforma girişti. Bu reform özel mülkiyetin kamu arazilerinin paylaştırılması yolu ile yeniden düzenlenmesini içeriyor, adadaki ortak kullanımdaki toprağın seçkinlere dağıtılmasına dayanıyordu.[af] Peter T. Schneider, Jane C. Schneider., Reversible Destiny: Mafia, Antimafia, and the Struggle for Palermo”, s.97-98. [/af] Ekonomik olarak Burbon Hanedanlığı’nın verdiği bu kararla ada halkı için başlayan kötü gidişat zamanla İtalyan Birliği düşüncesinin, Risorgimento, neden olduğu mücadelelerle birleşmiş ve adada ciddi bir güvenlik boşluğu oluşmuştu.[af] Schneider ve Schneider, s.88 [/af] 1860 yılında Garibaldi’nin hanedanlığa son vermesi ile birleşik İtalya’nın bir parçası olan ada Garilbaldi’nin askeri hamlesine destek veren comitive armate’ler, silahlı mangalar, ile tanıştı.[af] Letizia Paoli , Mafia Brotherhoods: Organized Crime, Italian Style, s.35, Oxford, 2003 [/af]
Bu örgütlenmeler esasen eşkıyalık tarzı örgütlenmelerdi. Muhtemelen Burbon Hanedanlığı ekonomik ve idari reformlarından mağdur ve rahatsız olan kişilerin katıldığı bu mangalar zamanla yerel aristokrasi için askeri hizmetler ve yasadışı maddi kazanımlar için iş birliği yapan basit suç grupları haline gelmişti. Bu gruplar mafyanın ilk omurgasını oluşturuyordu.[af] Paoli, s.36 [/af]
Palermo, Trapani ve Girganti gibi şehirlerde etkili olan armateler Sicilya birleşik İtalya’ya katıldıktan sonra şehirlerde etkinliklerini genişlettiler ve mafyalara dönüştüler.[af] Paoli, s.35 [/af] Bu adada klasik eşkıyalık döneminin sonuydu. Bu tercihte merkezi devletin, yeni İtalya’nın, bölgedeki ortak kullanımlı topraklardan geri kalanları tıpkı Burbonlar gibi özelleştirmesi yatıyordu. 1862 yılında devletin borçlarının ödenmesi için yapılan satışların %93’ünün zaten – daha önce Burbon döneminde zenginleşenlere yapıldığı 1878’teki soruşturmada anlaşıldı.[af] Schneider ve Schneider, s.89-90 [/af] Bu mafyayı kırsaldan şehirlere çeken temel olgulardan biri oldu.[af] Daron Acemoglu, Giuseppe De Feo, Giacomo De Luca, Weak States: Causes and Consequences of the Sicilian Mafia, s.541, In: The Review of Economic Studies, Volume 87, Issue 2, March 2020, Pages 537–581. [/af] Mafya böylece Palermo’dan Katanya’ya, Calabria’dan Napoli’ye yayıldı.
Kendi içlerinde ve aralarında bir düzen oluşturan mafya örgütlenmeleri merkezi devletin oluşturduğu güvenlik boşluğunda ‘adalet ve intikam’ dağıtmaya, ellerindeki şiddet unsuru ile görece bir ‘koruma’ sağlamaya başlayarak etkinliklerini derinleştirdiler.[af] Schneider ve Schneider, s.102-103 [/af] Mafioso adını alan örgütlenmelere katılan oğlanlar (picciotti) için bu örgütlenmelerde yer almak bir ‘onur’du.[af] Sezgin Baş, İtalyan Mafyasının Doğuşu, Yükselişi ve Düşüşü, s.1963, D.E.Ü. Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, Prof. Dr. Durmuş TEZCAN’a Armağan, C.21, Özel S., 2019, s. 1949-2001 [/af]
Burbonlardan bağımsızlığa ve bağımsızlıktan sonraki otorite boşluğu dönemine uzanan süreçte güçlenen ve yaygınlaşan mafya artık devlet otoritesinin önünde, özellikle Sicilya ve güney İtalya’da nüfusun çoğunun kabulünü almış bir yapı haline gelmişti. Bu durumda yerel yöneticilerin de mafyayı kabulü ve iş birliği oldukça etkili olmuştu.[af] Paoli, s.178 [/af]
19. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinden 20. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğine kadar süren sürekli alt üst oluşlar ve kamu otoritesinin kurulamamış olması nedeniyle mafyanın işlevi devlete olan güveni olumsuz yönde etkilemişti. İçinde bulunduğu kargaşa döneminde yükselen ve tam kontrol isteyen Mussolini iktidarının Sicilya’da karşısına çıkan en büyük düşman da bu düşünce şekli idi.[af] Gigantino, Anthony, Il Duce and the Mafia: Mussolini’s Hatred for the Mafia and the American Alliance with Organized Crime, The Histories: Vol. 4 : Iss. 1 , Article 3., s.11 [/af]
İtalyan Faşist rejimine karşı mafyanın bir tehdit haline gelişi esasen adanın geçirdiği evrimin oluşturduğu sosyolojinin ürünü olan siyasi fikirler ve mafyanın doğasının benzeşmesi ile şekillendi.
Duce’nin mangaları, mafya ve Mori
Mussolini 1924’te bölgeye gerçekleştirdiği ilk ziyaret ve daha sonra mafya hakkındaki savaş kararı Roma ile mafya arasındaki mücadelenin İkinci Dünya Savaşı’nda da aktif şekilde sürecek bir noktaya taşıdı.[af] 1924 ziyareti için bakınız: Jack E. Reece, p.267 in Fascism, the Mafia, and the Emergence of Sicilian Separatism (1919-43), The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 45, No. 2, Jun., 1973, pp. 261-276 [/af]
Mussolinin yükselişi ve polis devletini elde etmesi ile başlayan dönem faşist rejimle mafya arasındaki savaşın da miladı oldu. İdeolojik olarak Mussolini’nin Faşist Partisi, faşist kelimesinin kökenine atıfla[af] Cristogianni Borsella, Fascist Italy, A concise Historical Narrative, s.35, Brandon Book, 2007 [/af] tüm İtalya’yı otoriter ve milliyetçi, dahası kutsal devlet anlayışı içinde birleştirmeyi hedefliyordu.
23 mart 1919’da eski bir sosyalist olan Mussolini’nin öncülüğünde bir araya gelen Popolo D’Italia (İtalya Halkı) dergisi çevresindeki askerler, orta sınıf temsilcileri, fütüristler, anarko-sendikalistler ve kimi sosyalistler orta sınıfın arzularını ifade eden Fasci Italiani Combattimento yani Faşist Mücadele Birliklerinin İttifakı adında bir hareket kurdular.[af] Çelikçi – Kakışım, s.86.; Sosyalizm ve Toplumsal Mücadeleler Ansiklopedisi cilt 3, İtalya’da Faşizm ve Sosyalist Hareket, s.756, İletişim, 1988 [/af]
Hareketin kurulması ile Mussolini ve taraftarları hızla sokaklardaki gösteriler ve çatışmalarla seyreden İtalyan siyasetine yön vermeye başladı. Squadriti adı ile anılan ve hızla daha sonra kurulacak Faşist Parti’nin kara gömlekliler örgütüne dönüşecek olan mangalar Mussolini ve Fasci Italiani adına sokaklarda faaliyetlerine başladılar.[af] Claudia Baldoli, İtalya Tarihi, Mussolini İtalyası, s.222-223 [/af] Bu durum ise ülkenin güneyinde etkin şekilde, yukarıda nedenlerini kısmen ortaya koyduğumuz üzere, sokaklara ve iş dünyasına egemen olan mafya için tehlike çanlarının çalmaya başladığının işareti idi.
Faşist Parti’ye hizmet eden bu mangalar esasen tarım burjuvazisi denilen kesimin kontrolünde idi.[af] Roberta Suzzi Valli, The Myth of Squadrismo in the Fascist Regime, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 35, No. 2 (Apr., 2000), pp. 131-150 Sage Publications, Ltd. [/af] Mafyanın eski patronları yeni rejimin şiddet uygulayan kolu ile hızla bir iş birliğine girmişti. Bu durum ileride Mussolini ile mafya arasında çıkacak sorunların aslında bir egemenlik mücadelesi olduğunun altını çiziyordu.
Bu “birliklerin toprak sahipleri tarafından kullanılması ‘kırsal faşizm’ olarak adlandırılmaktaydı ve hareket hızlı ve umulmadık biçimde büyüyordu. Bu başarı karşısında Mussolini bile şaşkınlığa uğramıştı. – O her zaman faşizm kökeninde kentli bir olgu olduğu iddiasındaydı. Kırsal faşizm ‘Ras’ adı ile bilinen bir kişilik yarattı – bu, Cremona’daki Farinacci, Bologna’daki Dino Grandi ve Ferra’daki Balbo gibi çoğunlukla doğrudan Mussolini’nin denetiminde olmayan yerel duçeler (liderler) idi”[af] Baldoli, s.223 [/af]
Pratik olarak kullanışlı, örgütsel olarak esnek bu mangaların hakimiyet alanı ile mafyanın hakimiyet alanı iç içeydi. Yukarıda daha önce belirttiğimiz gibi Burbon Hanedanlığı ve sonrasındaki birleşik İtalya dönemi Sicilya özelinde mafyayı doğurmuştu. Bu çarpıklık faşizm yükselirken Mussolini’nin mangalarını da besliyordu. Mafya da bu mangalar gibiydi, yerel örgütlenmeler çevresinde doğuyor ve gelişiyordu. Tek bir mafya yoktu.[af] Sezgin Baş, İtalyan Mafyasının Doğuşu, Yükselişi ve Düşüşü, s.1954, D.E.Ü. Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, Prof. Dr. Durmuş TEZCAN’a Armağan, C.21, Özel S., 2019, s. 1949-2001 [/af]
Denge döneminde mafya iş ortağı durumundaki toprak sahipleri ve liberaller ile fırsatlar-riskler arasında Faşist Parti’yi destekledi. Bu bir bakıma zoraki bir durumdu. Sicilya’yı kırıp geçiren iki toprak reformu, bir savaş, bir kuraklık ile yükselen toprak sahiplerinin mafyadan aldıkları koruma pahalı hale gelmişti. Toprak sahipleri faşist rejimin polis devleti gücünü adaya getirerek bu koruma maliyetini düşürebileceklerini düşündüler.[af] Jack E. Reece, p.265 in Fascism, the Mafia, and the Emergence of Sicilian Separatism (1919-43), The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 45, No. 2, Jun., 1973, pp. 261-276 [/af] Denge döneminde Mussolini de, polis devleti örgütlenmesini tamamlayana kadar, Sicilya’da mafya ile zorunlu bir iş birliğini tercih etti. Öyle ya da böyle kırsal alana ulaşan düzen ve hukukta mafyanın payı vardı.
1924 yılında Sicilya turunda birkaç yüz suçlunun Sicilya nüfusu üzerinde baskı kuramayacağını söyleyen Mussolini mafyaya karşı savaşını duyurdu. Cesare Mori’yi bu süreçten az önce Palermo’ya yüksek komiser olarak atamıştı.[af] Mussolini’nin mafyaya savaş açmaya karar verdiği olayın detayları için bakınız: Reece, s.268-269 [/af] Mussolini için zorunlu iş birliği dönemi kapanmıştı.
Daha önce Po Vadisi ve Bologna’da görev yapan ve bu görevleri sırasında faşistlerin sık sık hedefi olan Mori, Sicilya’da mafyaya karşı oldukça sert bir tavır takındı. Binlerce mafya üyesi veya üye olduğundan şüphe edilen kişilerin aileleri tutuklandı. Tutuklamaların bir kısmı üyelerin teslim olmasını sağlamak için yapıldığı söylendi. Bu şekilde süren mafyaya karşı savaşın üçüncü yılına gelindiğinde beş bini Palermo’da olmak üzere Sicilya genelinde on bir bin kişi tutuklanmıştı.[af] John Dickie, Cosa Nostra – A History of the Sicilian Mafia, s.156, 2004. [/af]
Mori’nin git gide genişlettiği mafya karşıtı faaliyetlerin zirve noktası 1926 yılının Mayıs arında Sicilya mafya örgütlenmesinin en tepesindeki Don Vito’yu yakalamak oldu. Don Vito ve 150 adamı tutuklandığında[af] Dickie, s.155 [/af] Mussolini mafyaya karşı zaferini ilan etti.[af] Michele Pantaleone, Mafia and Politics, s.56, Chatto & Windus, 1966 [/af]
Ancak bunun bir zafer olup olmadığını İkinci Dünya Savaşı’ndaki hikâye bir sonuca bağlayacaktı. Mafya Mori karşısında kısmen geri çekilmiş, kısmen yer değiştirmişti.
Başkanın adamları: Mafya ve ABD donanma istihbaratının Yeraltı ve Husky operasyonları
Mori operasyonlarının tutuklamalarından kaçabilen mafya üyeleri önce yüzyılda ABD’ne göçen İtalyanlar üzerinden yeni kıtaya yöneldi.[af] Emma Hyman, The Rise and Fall of The Italian Mafia in America, s.3 [/af] Zaten daha önce de bölgede çeşitli suçlardan aranan Giuseppe Esposito gibi isimler ABD’ne mafyanın tohumlarını ekmişlerdi.[af] FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, The Sicilian Mafia and Its Impact on the United States, SeanM.McWeeney – Inspector in Charge Office of liaison and International Affairs Federal Bureau of Investigation Washington, DC Feb 1987, s.1-11 [/af] Giuseppe’nin New Orleans’ta kurduğu mafya teşkilatlanması 1881’de tutuklanmasına kadar genişlemeye devam etti.
Polis memuru David Hennesey’in öldürülmesi vakası[af] The Murder of Police Chief David Hennessy, https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/murder-police-chief-david-hennessy , Who killed New Orleans’ police chief 100 years ago?, https://www.nola.com/entertainment_life/vintage/article_824b4fe8-ebe1-5f04-8b3a-3e5568683ede.html [/af] ile ABD örgütlü mafya ile tanıştı. Giuseppe İtalya’ya iade edildi ve yerine ilk Amerika doğumlu ‘patron’ olan Joseph Macheca geçti.[af] FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, s.3 [/af] ABD mafya yapısı zamanla güçlenip derin kökler yakalamaya başladıkça mafya aileleri arasında rekabetlere sahne oldu. Mussolini ve Mori’den kaçarak ABD’ne gelebilen mafya üyeleri kendilerini bu rekabetin ortasında buldu. En sonunda mafya arasındaki mücadeleyi bir konsey kuran Lucky lakaplı Charlie Luciano kazandı.[af] Bill Bonanno – Gary B. Abromovitz, The Last Testament of Bill Bonanno, s.46-73 [/af]
Luciano sonraki yıllarda içki kaçakçılığı, gasp, haraç ve fuhuş gibi suçlardan soruşturuldu ve fuhuş nedeniyle tutuklandı. Luciano’nun hapishanedeki yılları içinde Nazi Almanyası, İmparatorluk Japonyası ve Mussolini’nin Faşist İtalyası Avrupa, Atlantik ve Pasifik’te hızla genişleme siyasetinin sonucu olarak ikinci dünya savaşının başlamasına neden olmuşlardı. Japonların Pearl Harbor baskınından sonra ABD’deki İtalyan mafyası için pek çok değişmeye başladı. Alman ve Japon ajanlarının faaliyetlerinden çekinen ABD, limanları elinde tutan İtalyanlar ile uzlaşmayı seçti.
ABD’yi böyle bir seçime zorlayan bir çok faktör vardı. Nazi denizaltılarının Atlantik’teki ABD – İngiliz besleme rotasına ve ABD kıyı şeridine yakın gemilere yönelik saldırıları ile 9 Şubat 1942’de yaşanan Normandie gemisi yangını[af] The Normandie catches fire, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-normandie-catches-fire; John Dickie, Cosa Nostra – A History of the Sicilian Mafia, s.193, 2004 [/af] bunlardan birkaçı idi.
ABD donanma istihbaratı Normandie yangının bir sabotaj olduğunu düşünüyordu ve daha fazla sabotaj ile istihbarat sızıntısını engellemek için limanları işçi sendikalarını ve ticari şirketler ağları ile kontrol altında tutan Luciano’ya başvurdu.[af] John Dickie, Cosa Nostra – A History of the Sicilian Mafia, s.193 – 195, 2004. Mafyanın ABD ticari girşimleri, sendika ve meslek odalarına sızması ile ilgili Robert J. Kelly’nin The Upperworld and the Underworld – Case Studies of Racketeering and Business Infiltrations in the United States çalışması kullanışlı bir genel özet sunuyor. [/af] Çünkü Normandie yangınıdan yaklaşık dört ay sonra sekiz Alman FBI sabotaj, patlama ve yangınlar için ellerindeki malzemeler ile yakalandı.[af] Nazı Saboteurs and George Dasch, FBI Famous Cases and Criminals, Life Magazine, 13 July 1942 Eight Nazi saboteurs shoul be put to death. [/af] Hemen ardından New York Times mühendis rolündeki bir Japon istihbarat subayının ABD’nin savaş için geliştirdiği silahların örnekleri ve şemalarını kaçırırken yakalandığı haberi gelmişti.[af] Tim Newark, Lucky Luciano, s.157, Mainstream, 2010 [/af]
ABD’ne göç eden çeşitli milliyetlerin oluşturdukları ticari girişimler, cemaatler yahut suç örgütleri ABD içinde Alman Nazilerinin kolayca istihbarat çalışması yapmasını sağlıyordu. Alman kökenliler dışında Nazi yanlısı örgütlenmeler ABD’de 1930’lu yıllardan beri vardı.[af] ABD’deki Nazi yanlısı örgütlenmeler için Bakınız: Bradley W. Hart, Hitler’s American Friends, 2018; More American supported Hitler than you may think, TİME https://time.com/5414055/american-nazi-sympathy-book/ ; American Nazis in the 1930s—The German American Bund, Alan Taylor [/af] Almanlar, Japonlar ve Nazi yanlılarına karşı ABD donanma istihbaratından Charles Radcliffe Haffenden ve Roscoe C. MacFall’in girişimi ile İtalyan suç örgütlerinin kullanılması planı devreye sokuldu: Yeraltı Operasyonu[af] Newark, s.157 – 158 [/af]
Bonanno ailesinin üyesi Bill Bonanno kitabında donanma istihbaratının kendilerine geliş yolu ile ilgili enteresan bir durumu anlatır: “Donanma istihbaratı bizim dünyamızla Birleşik Deniz ürünleri İşçileri Derneği ve Fulton Balık Pazarı başkanlığı yapan Joseph Socks Lanza’nın avukatı aracılığı ile iletişim kurdu. Sicilyalılar daha önce hiçbir devlet görevlisine konuşmamış ve yardım etmemişti, fakat Lanza Napolili idi, hükümet onu bizim dünyamızdaki Sicilyalılar ile potansiyel bir bağlantı olarak gördü”[af] Bill Bonanno – Gary B. Abromovitz, The Last Testament of Bill Bonanno, s.162 [/af]
1942 Mart ayında donanma istihbaratı ile Lanza arasında başlayan iş birliği Nisan ayı başında Luciano ve avukarı Moses Polakoff ile pazarlıklara dönüştü.[1] Aynı yılın 12 Mayıs’ında Luciano Sibirya adı takılan Dannemora cezaevinden ‘daha rahat ve konforlu’ Great Meadow’a transfer edildi.[af] Tim Newark, Lucky Luciano, s.163, Mainstream, 2010 [/af] Bu tarihten itibaren mafya limanlarda ve denizde – balıkçılar aracılığı ile – Almanlara odaklandı.
Uluslararası Liman İşçileri Derneği donanmanın kıyı ve limanlardaki sabotajları engellemesi ve balıkçı yahut ticari gemiler aracılığı ile kıyı şeridinde askeri görünümlü olmayan devriyeler atmasını sağlıyordu. Bu nedenle oldukça önemliydi[af] Robert J. Kelly, The Upperworld and the Underworld – Case Studies of Racketeering and Business Infiltrations in the United States, s.108, 1999 [/af] ve net şekilde elde tutulabilmesi için mafya üyesi, cinayet suçlusu John McCue’ü hapisten çıkararak bu derneğe yerleştirdi.[af] Tim Newark, Lucky Luciano, s.167-168, Mainstream, 2010 [/af]
ABD’de bunlar olurken müttefikler Kuzey Afrika’daki İtalya ve Nazi Alman birliklerini yenmiş ve Afrika kıyısı ile Sicilya arasında Akdeniz’den başka bir engel kalmamıştı. Mafyanın anavatanı Sicilya müttefiklerin Avrupa’ya girmesi için bir sıçrama tahtası konumuna gelmişti.[af] Basil Liddell Hart, İkinci Dünya Savaşı Tarihi, s.597, İş Bankası, 2018 [/af]
Yeraltı Operasyonu ile ABD’nin doğu sahilinde amaçlarına ulaşan donanma istihbaratı İtalya’ya Sicilya üzerinden yapılacak sefer için ellerindeki suç ağını çalıştırarak çıkardıkları Sicilya’da güvenilebilecek kişiler listesini Washington’a sundu. Merkez komutanlık verilen isimlerin %40’ını onayladı.[af] Newark, s.172 [/af] Bu gelişmeden sonra istihbarat mafyanın yerel bağlantılarından Sicilya’daki tüm limanların, kıyı şeridinin, iniş ve kalkışa uygun yerlerin bilgi ve fotoğraflarını topladı. Operasyonda bilgi sağlayanların büyük kısmı Luciano’nun hapse girmeden önce kurduğu uluslararası uyuşturucu ağının üyeleriydi.[af] Newark, s.175 [/af]
Müttefiklerin Husky Operasyonu adını koydukları Sicilya operasyonunun yerel ilişkilerinde adı en çok anılan kişi Don Calogero Vizzini’dir. Vizzini ve Sicilya’da operasyonunda mafyanın rolü üzerine ‘işlemeli mendil’ vakasından mafyanın geçici yönetimdeki etkili olmasına, Sicilya’da müttefiklerin siyasi tercihlerinin mafyayı yeniden yükselişe geçirdiğine dair pek çok tartışma yürütülmektedir. Bazı araştırmacılar faşizm sonrası mafyanın yükselişi ile mafya arasındaki ilişkinin Michele Pantaleone’nin[af] Michele Pantaleone Villabalı Leone ailesinin bir üyesi. İtalyan siyasetçi ve tarihçi. Komünist görüşleri ve tüm hayatı boyunca mafya karşıtı kampanyalarıyla tanınıyor. 1962’de kaleme aldığı kitabında anlattığı mini bir paraşütle Vizzini’nin evine indirilen kutudan çıkan Luciano’nun adının baş harfi işlenmiş mendil vakasının yazarı. Çoğu kişi bu vakanın uydurma olduğunu, Pantaleone’nin siyasi bir mesaj vermek istediğini iddia ediyor. [/af] kitabındaki hiç doğrulanmamış bazı olaylara dayandığını savunur.[af] Tartışmalara bazı yaklaşım örnekleri için: Jonc Dickie, s. 194-196; Schneider ve Schneider, s.150-155; Francesco Renda, Sicilya Tarihi, Cilt 3, Palermo [/af] Pantaleone’nin kitabına dayandırılmış abartılı olduğu varsayılan öykülerin dışında Sicilyalı mafya üyeleri ile ABD istihbaratının yakın ilişkisi konusunda tarihsel olarak uyum gösteren pek çok vaka da bulunuyor.
ABD’li Sicilya mafyasının yerel ağlar üzerinden Sicilya’da savaşan çoğu Sicilyalı olan İtalyan askerlerine[af] Basil Liddell Hart, İkinci Dünya Savaşı Tarihi, s.609 – 610, İş Bankası, 2018 [/af] direnmemeleri ve merkez komutanlığa bildirim yapmamaları yönünde telkinlerde bulunduğunu anlatan Pantaleone’nin[af] Michele Pantaleone, Mafia and Politics, s.59, Chatto & Windus, 1966 [/af] iddiaları Sicilya’daki Alman ihtiyat birliklerinin ABD ve İngilizlerin karaya çıkmalarından bir saat sonra haberdar olması[af] Hart, s.609 [/af] ve çıkarma yapan ABD ordusunun Vizzini’nin memleketi olan Villaba’ya ve oradan da Palermo’ya kadar neredeyse hiç direniş görmeden ulaşması gibi olaylar tarafından destekleniyor. Diğer yandan direniş olmama sürecine, Mussolini’nin Sicilyalı memurlar ve polis/askerleri İtalyan anakarasına çekip yerlerine anakaradan atamalar yapma girişimi ve General Mario Roatta’nın müttefiklere karşı direniş çağrısında Sicilyalıların gerçek İtalyanlar olmadığına dair iması ile radikalleşen Sicilyalılık düşüncesi de etki etmiş olabilir.[af] Jack E. Reece, p.278 in Fascism, the Mafia, and the Emergence of Sicilian Separatism (1919-43), The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 45, No. 2, Jun., 1973, pp. 261-276 [/af]
Yine de etkili liderlerden yoksun ve müttefiklerin çekindiği komünistler, faşist rejimle iş birliği içindeki liberaller ve sadece sınırlı bölgelerde etkin Sicilyalı ayrılıkçılar söz konusu olduğunda[af] Reece., s.276 [/af] mafya bölgede yönetime en yakın adaydı ve öyle de oldu. Mafyanın yerel iletişimi Vizzini müttefikler tarafından belediye başkanı olarak atandı.[af] John Dickie, Cosa Nostra – A History of the Sicilian Mafia, s.194 – 195, 2004 [/af] Adanın müttefiklerin eline geçmesinin ardından karşımıza çıkan panorama doğu yakası için başlayan iş birliğinin ‘Yeraltı’ndan Husky’ye kadar uzandığını gösteriyor.
Müttefikler adayı ele geçirdikten sonra İşgal Bölgesi Müttefik Askeri Yönetimi’ni kurdular. Bu yönetim altıncı ayında bölgede yaşanan yiyecek krizi ve yükselen karaborsa faaliyeti ve suç oranları ile mücadele etmek yerine Sicilya’daki tüm siyasi aktiviteleri yasakladı. Kasaba ve köylerde karşısına çıkan karmaşık bir yönetim sorununu çözmek için kurulacak yönetimlerin faşist veya sosyalist ya da komünist olmamasında kendi aralarında uzlaştılar.[af] Dickie, s.197 [/af] Daha önce Luciano’nun topladığı isimler Washington’a sunulmuştu, benzer bir liste İngiliz Savaş Ofisi tarafında da yapılmıştı ve mafya konusunda çekimser değildi. İngilizlerin listesinde bir mayfa lideri için ‘eğitimli değil ama etkili’ deniyordu. CIA Palermo ofisi de mafya ile iş birliğini sürdürüyordu.[af] Dickie, s.198 [/af]
Normalleşme ve savaş sonrası dönemde İtalya’da mafya hızla eski günlerinden de güçlü bir döneme girdi. 1980’lere kadar tüm İtalya’da siyasetten orduya okullardan sokaklara tüm ülkeyi kontrol eden mafya ile Mussolini’yi ortaya çıkaran ortak tarihi nedenler onları düşmanlaştırmıştı. Mafya Mussolini ve Mori’den intikamını ABD Doğu Yakası’nı koruyarak ve Sicilya için istihbarat sağlayarak almıştı. Ancak bu Sicilya mafyasının istihbarat ile hikayesinin sonu değildi.
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Preliminary reviews urged that at least one constructing had collapsed.
Former federal prosecutors predict the fallen FTX co-founder will receive at the very least 20 years in prison.
With the annexation of the Federal State of Austria by Germany in 1938, the Reichsmark changed the Austrian schilling.
The MyPyramid meals guide contains a skinny yellow band representing healthy oils.
Could they supply a potential reply to the world’s power scarcity and climate-change woes?
You want to grasp crucial parts, such because the interest price cycle, and the way it might probably have an impact on the varied trading markets.
Positive, optical discs can retailer gigabytes of data.
As well as, rebels within the southern oil region have forced crude production cutbacks, and internal unrest, especially attacks by the Boko Haram group within the north and the activities of Niger-Delta militant have additionally harm the economic system.
For instance chares for grocery goods with the credit card could seem convenient but they draw a high interest charge and sometimes lead to high costs on the card.
Generally, the issue is set as soon as for the entirety of a recreation, whereas in other games it may be changed freely at any point.
Who produced the electric automotive seen in this image?
Peter Sterling turned director in 1982 and continued to pursue a growth coverage for the museum.
Glass is typically inert, resistant to chemical attack, and may principally withstand the motion of water, making it a super material for the manufacture of containers for foodstuffs and most chemicals.
The two pilots, who had not put on their shoulder straps, sustained facial accidents.
And, of course, it helps to have cash round for fixing up the flip.
Where can I buy steampunk clothing?
Rigorous hygiene safety measures might be adopted in transportation, accommodation and meal venues.
Even a tiny break in your pores and skin makes you more prone to warts.
Tight hamstrings also improve the pressure on your low back once you bend.
Chang, Chelsea. “Completely happy Lunar/Chinese New Yr: Lucky Foods Edition.” SQ Online.
For more data, go to the Worldwide Baseball Federation’s Internet site to study extra about world leagues and teams.
It form of does!
At the moment, about 4 million individuals reside there, making it Germany’s tenth-largest state.
Air Drive drone pilots have been called “armchair killers,” and the truth that a pilot can be sitting at a console in Nevada while pulling a trigger that kills individuals in Pakistan is found, by many people, to be unsettlingly distant and chilly.
The identical authors did one other study on prime European soccer gamers, who tended to play for groups in nations that supplied the very best tax rates.
In October 2017, Viking Cruises revealed it was engaged on a venture to develop the world’s first cruise ship powered by liquid hydrogen.
Kind fundraising committees and assign each group member a special area of town to canvass.
As an example, consider Canada, where an IPO won’t be able to reach the size or price that an offering in the US markets can fetch.
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You might first need to stick a strip of blue adhesive paper round the top four to 5 inches of a deep plastic tub to look like the sky.
However experiencing the great thing about nature is the best possible technique to chill out.
Jean is at her facet, but color and motion are the true topics of this painting.
First, we need to understand how vitamin C works in the immune system.
Else you possibly can select the big cats, the tigers for test design.
Whether or not you have to rid your kitchen ground of ants or keep mosquitoes from ruining your camping trip, you’ll find any number of options on supermarket shelves, but the lively elements listed on every label are enough to make you want you paid more consideration in chemistry class.
Are there new ones?
In conclusion, medicine performs an important role in managing bipolar disorder, providing people with the stability they want to attenuate symptoms and enhance their high quality of life.
Individuals assume nonalcohol beer is replacing its traditional counterpart, however one in 5 low-or-no-alcohol merchandise bought is changing a comfortable drink.
The collection of Bushcraft Programs include transient two day introductory packages, suitable for the novice or these with minimal time, who want to sample what is readily available on the lengthier applications.
One of the methods to deal with social determinants in preventive psychiatry is thru policy change.
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Upon getting a superb password, what you do next is simply as essential: Do not spread it around.
A lot of early manufacturers followed a simple formula for naming their vehicle models.
However before Martha Stewart and Ina Garten turned the domestic goddesses so many of us look to for inspiration, there was an actual domestic goddess presiding over the heart of the house: Hestia.
However it was closer to $800 because the 4-speed, entrance discs, headers, and special rear brake linings were separate “obligatory options.” Of course, you would add all method of standard Camaro goodies, together with Positraction limited-slip differential, rear spoiler, and the Rally Sport appearance group.
Pocket doors at either end of the bath keep the room visually simple and the limited floor space unobstructed.
Is there a way to learn more, mingle with some like-minded people, perhaps find a more seasoned investor to mentor you?
This grant only goes to students who maintain a 2.5 GPA or better in high school and who also demonstrate a financial need.
By the time your price is competitive, your house will most likely have been on the market three months and will look like a tired listing.
In fact, this car has proved to be so popular that Chevy has announced plans to continue manufacturing new models of it past 2017 and likely through 2020.
William Marsden, HM Ambassador, San Jose.
The dimensions and type of your pool, in addition to the amount of debris it usually collects, ought to information your selection.
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If by any chance, you plan to offer or renting out your condo soon, then you need a reasonable thought of the current patterns in your locality.
DC motors were inefficient, but nobody might imagine how an AC motor would work.
This study report also provides an overview of Standards on or related to LED lighting (including general regulations & standards, environmental issues etc.); Policies and schemes for promoting the penetration of LED lighting; Industry trends in LED lighting fixtures; Distribution Channel (retail stores, Web-based, other sales/distribution channels); LED Lighting industry competitive environment; profiles of over 70 LED lamp selected manufacturers and related companies in Australia, as well as over 270 competitors worldwide are provided.
The oily coat sheds water – one good shake and the lab is nearly dry.
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On transfer 15, Nepomniachtchi missed the concept 15.b4, which briefly sacrifices a pawn for open traces.
We had entered the room and when he sat down, he opened his cloak and that i noticed with amazement that he wore an embroidered waistcoat with lengthy tails, black velvet trousers, and a small silver sword.
Ransom, later a Governor, made the first purchase of land there.
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Individuals who have experienced abuse, neglect, or unstable dwelling environments may be at the next threat.
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From left to proper the lights depict St Bede, St Anne, St Benedict, St Catherine of Siena, St Gregory and St Francis of Assisi.
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Roy died June 15, 1960.
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Such planning would permit service companions to sell their API three years after receiving an interest, but lower than three years after any asset was acquired by the partnership.
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The Rev Malcolm McCallum officiated and Mrs Georgia Underdahl, accompanied by Mrs Geraldine Stephenson at he organ, sang ‘The Old Rugged Cross’ and ‘In The Garden’.
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Going back to our APR example, for example that the second lender expenses a 3 origination payment, plus an application charge and other costs totaling $3,820 at closing.
Visitation will begin at 6 p.m.
Excessive speeds might also cause your trailer or automotive to sway, making it harder to manage your tow vehicle.
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The 750-acre facility, where 8,one hundred workforce members design and construct appliances and assist corporate operations.
Create an inventory of international locations and have your kids match each world flag up with the correct country every flag represents.
Stock market volatility can trigger mental well being issues akin to anxiety and depression.
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Admittedly it wasn’t the most effective assault we were dealing with however not unhealthy.
Nonlinear data analysis is closely related to nonlinear system identification.
That’s before you think about the higher prices farmers and other manufacturers can be compelled to cost, including to price inflation and making them much less competitive with imports.
Miss Ray died Thursday at her residence in Commerce.
According to Boyer, the Mystere was created at about the same time that 1957 design development began in earnest for both the Thunderbird and the standard Ford.
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Squadron Chief Clifford Philpot (51156), Royal Air Power; currently on mortgage to the federal government of Pakistan.
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Preventive policy is addressed to monetary stability through the use of accessible supervisory and regulatory tools.
Whereas rebates on new cars are widespread, and tend to return from the automobile maker itself, you can even get rebates on used automobiles.
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Shortly before his first loss of life, Palpatine had sent a psychic command by the Force to Mara Jade, planting in her the need to kill Luke.
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A technology on the flipside of an overlay is a roof underpinning, or sub-roof system referred to as a radiant barrier.
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There are clear examples in which these three paradigms served as the basis for structural changes in which states鈥?housing policies evolved based upon the economic changes.
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It may be heard right here.
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Double-stacks rely on a flatcar with a sunken floor that allows two intermodal containers to rest one atop the other, doubling the capacity of a flatcar.
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Man-made mounds are sometimes dubbed “hills” as properly, whether or not this is strictly accurate.
Historical past, Performance and Conservation.
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The game employs a genetics and training system, via which kids inherit many traits, culture, religion and skills from their mother and father and guardians.
French, Howard W. “Wealth Grows, but Health Care Withers in China.” New York Times.
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This follows earlier falls in 2010 after RPI hit -1.4 last July.
While sympathetic to the Allied cause and reluctant to battle, he lacked the authority to cease it.
1, and the Medicare Benefit disenrollment period runs from Jan.
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Hydroquinone: Uses, Safety, Risks, and More
Hydroquinone is a chemical compound that has various applications in different industries. Below are some key points about its uses, safety considerations, and potential risks.
###
Uses of Hydroquinone
Hydroquinone is commonly used:
In the production of antifungal agents
As a antioxidant in pharmaceuticals
In the synthesis of various organic compounds
As a reducing agent in chemical reactions
In the manufacture of resins and polymers
###
Safety Considerations
When handling hydroquinone, it is important to follow safety guidelines:
Use protective gloves and eyewear to prevent skin and eye contact.
Work in a well-ventilated area to avoid inhaling dust or vapors.
Avoid prolonged exposure to the compound as it can be irritating to the skin.
Pregnant women and individuals with certain medical conditions should consult a healthcare professional before use.
###
Potential Risks
Hydroquinone may pose the following risks:
Allergic reactions or skin irritation in some individuals.
Potential toxicity if ingested or inhaled in large quantities.
Reactivity with certain chemicals, leading to hazardous reactions.
###
Conclusion
Hydroquinone is a versatile chemical with significant applications across multiple industries. While it offers numerous benefits, it also requires careful handling due to its potential health and safety risks. Always refer to safety data sheets and guidelines for proper usage and storage.
What to know about hydroquinone
Hydroquinone is a versatile ingredient found in numerous skincare products, known for its ability to lighten skin tone and treat various skin conditions. It works by inhibiting melanin production, which can help fade hyperpigmentation and improve skin discoloration. However, it’s a potent ingredient that must be used with care to avoid potential side effects.
Health Conditions
Hydroquinone is commonly used to treat Melasma, a condition characterized by dark patches on the face, often caused by hormonal changes or UV exposure. The ingredient works effectively in individuals of darker skin tones, as melasmal spots may be more noticeable in such cases.
Health Products
Hydroquinone is a key component in many skincare products designed to address pigmentation issues. It’s often found in creams, serums, and lotions aimed at improving skin texture and tone.
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Uses
Hydroquinone is primarily used to treat skin discoloration caused by conditions such as melasma, sun damage, freckles, and lentigines. It’s also sometimes employed to reduce the appearance of acne scars.
Melasma
Melasma is a common condition characterized by dark patches on the face, cheeks, and occasionally the upper lip. Hydroquinone can help lighten these areas over time when used consistently.
Freckles
Freckles are small, light-colored spots that appear on skin exposed to the sun. Hydroquinone can help fade freckles when applied regularly, though it may take several weeks or months for noticeable results.
Lentigines
Lentigines (also known as age spots) are flat, oval-shaped darkened patches that appear on skin exposed to the sun over time. Hydroquinone can help reduce their appearance when used correctly and consistently.
Acne scars
Hydroquinone may be used to treat hypertrophic (thick and raised) acne scars, though results can vary depending on the individual and the severity of the scarring.
Other uses
In some cases, hydroquinone is used for other pigmentation issues or as part of a broader skincare regimen to maintain even skin tone and texture.
How does it work?
Hydroquinone inhibits the enzyme tyrosinase, which plays a key role in melanin production. By reducing melanin synthesis, hydroquinone helps to lighten dark spots and improve skin discoloration.
Risks and side effects
While effective, hydroquinone can cause side effects if not used as directed. Overuse or incorrect application may lead to uneven lightening, grayish tones, or patchy discoloration. It can also cause irritation when used too frequently. Potential allergic reactions are another concern, so it’s important to conduct a patch test before applying hydroquinone regularly.
How to use
For optimal results, apply hydroquinone as directed by your skincare professional or according to the product instructions. Always wear sunscreen daily when using products containing hydroquinone, as sun exposure may worsen discoloration. Consistency is key for achieving the best outcomes.
Alternative options
For those who prefer milder options, consider alternatives like retinol or alpha-hydroxy acids (AHAs), which can also help with skin texture and pigmentation without the potential risks associated with hydroquinone. Consulting a dermatologist can help determine the best approach for individual needs.
Skin protection tips
When using products containing hydroquinone, protect your skin from further damage by wearing sunscreen daily and avoiding unnecessary exposure to UV rays. This will help maintain even pigmentation and prevent the formation of new dark spots.
Summary
Hydroquinone is a powerful ingredient for addressing skin discoloration, but it requires careful use to avoid side effects. By following proper application guidelines and incorporating sunscreen into your skincare routine, you can achieve desired results while maintaining skin health.
How we reviewed this article:
The information in this article is based on thorough research and review by MNT’s healthcare experts to ensure accuracy and reliability.
Latest news
Stay informed about the latest developments in skincare science and product reviews to make educated decisions about your skin care routine.
Related Coverage
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